I. Introduction
Segment (linguistics)
In linguistics (specifically, phonetics and phonology), the term segment
is "any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditorily,
in
the stream of speech.
Classifying speech
units
Segments
are called "discrete" because they are separate and individual, such
as consonants and vowels, and occur in a distinct temporal order. Other
units, such as tone,
stress,
and sometimes secondary articulations such as nasalization, may coexist with multiple segments and cannot be
discretely ordered with them. These elements are termed suprasegmental.
Kinds of segment
The
segments of sign language
are visual, such as hands, movements, face, and body. They occur in a distinct
spatial and temporal order. The SignWriting script represents the spatial order of the
segments with a spatial cluster of graphemes. Other notations for sign language use a temporal
order that implies a spatial order. In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that
deals with the analysis of speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond
fairly well to phonetic segments of the analysed speech.
Marginal segments
When
analyzing the inventory of segmental units in any given language, some segments will be found to be marginal,
in the sense that they are only found in onomatopoeic words, interjections, loan words, or a very limited number of ordinary words, but
not throughout the language. Marginal segments, especially in loan words, are
often the source of new segments in the general inventory of a language. This
appears to have been the case with English /ʒ/, which originally only occurred
in French loans.
Suprasegmentals
Some
phonemes cannot be easily analyzed as distinct segments, but rather belong to a
syllable or even word. Such "suprasegmentals" include tone,
stress,
and prosody.
In some languages, nasality
or vowel harmony
is suprasegmental.
II. Discussion about comparing phonemes
Serbian orthography
Rephrasing to avoid saying that the
Serbo-Croatian orthography is perfectly phonemic; it's not, as it fails to
represent stress, pitch, and length on vowels.
/buts/
A sound that is a single phoneme in one language may be a
, /buts/ means leg-covering
footwear in English and consists of four phonemes /b
u t s/; but in Hebrew it means a kind of cloth and consists of only three
phonemes /b u ts/. In fact, /ts/ in
English is two phonemes /t/ and /s/, while IIUC Hebrew /t_s/ ("t-s
ligature") is one phoneme. It's not the same "thing"
interpreted as a phoneme cluster in English and as a single phoneme in Hebrew.
The Hebrew sound is an affricate, like English "ch".
Czech r-hacek
Possibly the rarest sound is the one represented by
"r hacek" (found in the name Dvorak) in the Czech language; it appears to be unique to the language. This sound (ř) is similar or equal to the one of French
'j'. It is also close (and related) to Polish
'rz'. -- AdSR /ř/
is not equivalent to French /j/; French /j/ is the same as the English /s/ in measure, Czech
has the letter ž for that. /ř/ is similar, but it's rolled. the
Polish rz is closer to the Czech ž than to ř.
It seemed to me to
be /r/ and /ʒ/ articulated simultaneously.
Some Spanish speakers have the r-hacek
sound for , although it is nonstandard and not terribly common.
Czech is certainly not the only language to have a
phoneme unique to it. Dozens if not hundreds of languages share this property.
Czech r-hacek just happens to be the example that is most well-known to Western
linguists.
Allophony
The sounds /z/ and /s/ are distinct phonemes in English,
but allophones in Spanish. Out of curiosity,
what sound environment makes a Spanish speaker say [z]? It
seems like every use of the letter "z" should be pronounced as [s].
Not that spelling and phones/phonemes need to be very intimately related, of
course; the main point is
Spanish word with a [z] sound. Maybe
it's a feature of some particular pockets of Spanish? -- Ryguasu
What
relation does have with /z/ in Spanish? None. is always the
phoneme /θ/, with the voiced allophone [ð] before certain voiced consonants.
Similarly, is always the phoneme /s/, with the voiced allophone [z]
before certain voiced consonants, e.g. /'desde/ ['dezde].
You'll
occasionally hear Spanish speakers using the /z/ sound for an S that appears
before a voiced consonant in a phrase like ¿Quién es David?, but certainly never in a word by itself, so it
probably isn't a great example of an allophone.
Depends
on dialect. There are many allophones of /s/. Most Spanish dialects have two:
One at the beginning of syllables, one at the end of syllables. There may be
different pronunciations at the ends of words than at the ends of syllables.
The syllable-final allophones may be /h/ or /z/ before voiced (as in /desde/,
/mismo/, or a lengthening of the previous vowel. Some dialects don't have
syllable-final /s/ at all. The majority of the Spanish speakers don't have a
distinct /T/ phoneme, but only /s/. If such a dialect voices syllable-final
/s/, then may be [z], e.g. in /fe'ros/ [fe'roz].
German
is a better example of [s] and [z] being allophones of /s/. German has both
phonemes. By the way, in some cases z and s are
allophones in English (for the plural -- or maybe it is /ez/) Slrubenstein
Right. For example, chairs ends in [z], while cats ends
in [s]. -- Ryguasu
Allophones
or allomorphs?
Yes,
those are allomorphs. A better example of allophones in English would be the
aspirated T at the beginning of "tip" and the non-aspirated T at the
end of "pit", which English treats as the same sound in all contexts.
Isn't it more than a bit confusing to say phonemes aren't
sounds, and then in a section like this refer to them as sounds? Yet /s/ and /z/ were allophones in Old
English (at least in the Early West Saxon dialect). The /z/ allophone only
being used when /s/ appeared in medial position.
How many points of articulation used?
Surely Dyirbal doesn't have the most
places of articulation? Ubykh, for instance, contrasts voiceless
fricatives in labiodental, alveolar, postalveolar, alveolopalatal, retroflex, velar, uvular and glottal classes: fa to eat, sa sword,
ʂa head, ʃa arrow,
ɕa three, xa
testis, χa to knit, haj no, and there is an additional bilabial
class not represented in the fricatives.
English has 40 phonemes
English has 24
consonants including affricates and excluding foreign sounds such as /x/. It
has 12 simple vowels and 8 diphthongs. Of course, not everyone speaks like
this. Where I'm from, /h/ is deleted, /θ/ becomes [f] and /ð/ becomes [v]. But "English" without adjectives
means "standard English". It
seems like a good indicator that this concept of the phoneme is getting at
something that is at the sub-lexical and even sub-syllabic level of language, but for various reasons the concept is
flawed--therefore, there will never be
any agreements as to the exact phoneme inventories of a given language are. If one key issue in language is to account for
invariance across all that variation, the phoneme comes up well short.
The entire thing needs re-written. The
term refers to a set of concepts of historic interest to linguistics and
phonology but is now largely obsolete. That is because research has failed to find
support for most conceptions of the phoneme in articulation, in acoustics and
in speech perception. It now seems more
likely to be an artifact of writing systems. To word it differently, if you try to set down
dynamic speech in static units at a sub-syllabic level, you get things like
phonemes and features. That is the sort
of analysis you have to rely on to write a language. But there might be very little or nothing of
this in the actual human psychology of language. Interestingly enough, the one hope for
retaining some sort of psychological or metalinguistic concept of the phoneme
comes from reading acquisition of an alphabetic language--that is the current
talk of 'phonemic awareness' in beginning literacy (which goes way way back to
a Soviet research Elkonen).
III.
References
·
A Dictionary of
Linguistics & Phonetics, David Crystal,
2003, pp. 408–409
·
David Crystal, A
Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics, Blackwell, 2003.
·
Carlos Gussenhoven
& Haike Jacobs, "Understanding Phonology", Hodder & Arnold,
1998. 2nd edition 2005
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